Analysis of quinoa cultivation adoption challenges in Iran: A qualitative study with a causal modeling approach

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Socio-Economic and Agricultural Extension Research Department, Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, AREEO, Shiraz, I. R. Iran

2 Socio-Economic and Agricultural Extension Research Department, Booshehr Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, AREEO, Booshehr, I. R. Iran

3 Khoozestan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, AREEO, Ahwaz, I. R. Iran

Abstract

Abiotic stresses are becoming the most destructive threats that limit agricultural productivity for most crops. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) can deal with abiotic stresses. The present study examines the challenges of cultivating quinoa as a new crop in Iran using an inductive qualitative content analysis method. The elements of the criterion of “Trustworthiness of study” confirm the validity of this study. The statistical population, selected through purposive sampling, included experts and farmers familiar with quinoa in 14 cities located in four provinces of the country. Findings revealed that extension-training classes were most effective in familiarizing farmers with quinoa, while media played the weakest role. The responses extracted five main components including “economic,” “quinoa characteristics,” “personal characteristics,” “knowledge,” and “supportive policy” as reasons for cultivating quinoa. Nine components were challenges and reasons for not cultivating quinoa, i.e., “economic,” “environmental,” “performance,” “personal-ownership,” “knowledge,” “mental schema,” “supportive policy,” “equipment,” and “hygiene.” Among them, “Quinoa characteristics” was the primary adoption driver, while “economic” factors were the main reason for rejection. Based on these results and global experience, it is recommended to introduce quinoa in marginal areas suffering from water scarcity and salinity. This strategy can generate income, enhance farmer economic resilience, and contribute to food security. Government incentive policies for these areas are crucial accelerators. One of the most important conclusions is that successfully establishing quinoa in Iran hinges on creating a structured market and value chain to overcome the primary challenges of low consumer demand and unfavorable income conditions for farmers.

Graphical Abstract

Analysis of quinoa cultivation adoption challenges in Iran: A qualitative study with a causal modeling approach

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Afzal, I., Haq, M. Z. U., Ahmed, S., Hirich, A., & Bazile, D. (2023). Challenges and perspectives for integrating quinoa into the agri-food system. Plants, 12(19), 3361. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12193361
Afzal, I., Basra, S. M. A., Rehman, H. U., Iqbal, S., & Bazile, D. (2022). Trends and limits for quinoa production and promotion in Pakistan. Plants, 11(12), 1603. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11121603
Ahmadzai, H. (2020). Trends in quinoa adoption in marginal areas: An assessment of economic viability and political outlook. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 57(3), 235-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2020.01351
Alam, K. (2015). Farmers’ adaptation to water scarcity in drought-prone environments: A case study of Rajshahi District, Bangladesh. Agricultural Water Management, 148, 196-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.10.011
Alandia, G., Rodriguez, J. P., Jacobsen, S. E, Bazile, D., & Condori, B. (2020). Global expansion of quinoa and challenges for the Andean region. Global Food Security, 26, 100429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100429
Andreotti, F., Neher, C. M., Speelman, E. N., & Bazile, D. (2023). Exploring farmers’ perspectives on agrobiodiversity management: Future options for quinoa smallholder organizations in the Peruvian high Andes. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 43(3), 42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-023-00891-y
Bakhshi Jahromi, A. (2025). Adoption and non-adoption of quinoa cultivation. In Proceeding of the first national program on transferring quinoa research findings, Shiraz, Iran, 6-7 January 2025 (pp. 26-30). Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, AREEO, Shiraz, IR Iran. (In Persian).
Bakhshi Jahromi, A. (2024). Identification and analysis of drivers for the development of quinoa cultivation in Iran [Unpublished research report]. Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO). (In Persian).
Bazile, D., Bertero, H. D, & Nieto, C. (2015). State of the art report on quinoa around the world in 2013. Rome: FAO.
Bazile, D., Jacobsen, S. E., & Verniau A. (2016), The global expansion of quinoa: Trends and limits. Front Plant Science., 7, 622. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00622
Elgeti, D., Nordlohne, S. D, Föste, M., Besl, M., Linden, MH, Heinz, V., Jekle, M., & Becker, T. (2014). Volume and texture improvement of gluten-free bread using quinoa white flour. Journal of Cereal Science, 59(1), 41-47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2013.10.010
Fallah Haghighi, N., Mahmoudi, M., & Bijani, M. (2018). Barriers to entrepreneurship development in Iran’s higher education: A qualitative case study. Interchange, 49(3), 353-375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780-018-9330-9
Gamboa, C., Schuster, M., Schrevens, E., & Maertens, M. (2017). The quinoa boom and the welfare of smallholder producers in the Andes, bioeconomics working paper series, working Paper 03/2017, University of Leuven p. 36.
Gamboa, C., Van den Broeck, G., & Maertens, M. (2018). Smallholders’ preferences for improved quinoa varieties in the Peruvian Andes. Sustainability, 10(10), 3735. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103735
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K Denzin & Y. S Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research, (pp. 105–117). Sage Publications, Inc.
Hassanpour, B. (2024). Investigating strategies for improving the quinoa value chain in Iran [Unpublished research report]. Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO). (In Persian).
Hirich, A., Rafik, S., Rahmani, M., Fetouab, A., Azaykou, F., Filali, K., Ahmadzai, H., Jnaoui, Y., Soulaimani, A., Moussafir, M., Ghahrous, E. M., Karboune, S., Sbai, A., & Choukr-Allah, R. (2021). Development of quinoa value chain to improve food and nutritional security in rural communities in Rehamna, Morocco: Lessons learned and perspectives. Plants, 10(2), 301. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020301
Jacobsen, S. E. (2017). The scope for adaptation of quinoa in Northern Latitudes of Europe. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 203(6), 603-613. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12228
Jacobsen, S. E., & Christiansen, J. L. (2016). Some agronomic strategies for organic quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 202, 454-463. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12174
Jacobsen, S. E., Mujica, A., & Jensen, C. R. (2003). The resistance of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) to adverse abiotic factors. Food Reviews International, 19(1 and 2), 99-109. https://doi.org/10.1081/FRI-120018872
Jensen, C. R., Orum, J. E Pedersen, S. M, Andersen, M. N., Plauborg, F., Liu, F., & Jacobsen, S. E. (2014). A short overview of measures for securing water resources for irrigated crop production. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 200, 333-343. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12067
Khonje, M., Manda, J., Alene, A. D, & Kassie, M. (2015). Analysis of adoption and impacts of improved maize in Eastern Zambia. World Development, 39(10), 1784-1795. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.09.008
Koyro, H. W., & Eisa, S. S (2008). Effect of salinity on composition, viability and germination of seeds of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Plants and Soil, 302(1-2), 79-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9457-4
Mihiretu, A., & Ayen, K. (2023). A cost-benefit analysis of the advantages of quinoa compared with major competing crops in Wag-himira zone, Ethiopia. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 70(4), 401-410. https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2023.01697
Mohammadi, M., Bijani, M., Naeimi, A., Valizadeh, N., & Setti, A. (2024). Towards conservation behavioral change through connectedness to nature: A qualitative content analysis. Iranian Agricultural Research, 42(2), 14-25. https://doi.org/10.22099/iar.2024.49926.1583
Nikooei, A. R., Mardi, M., Tavakoli, A. R., Daneshian, J., Golzardi, F., Pourmidani, A., Karimi Saqarlou, M., Rahmani, S., & Farazmand, H. (2023). National Agricultural Crop Pattern Plan for the Year 2023-2024 (Vol. 1, Crops). Tehran: Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO). (In Persian)
Olum, S., Gellynck, X., Juvinal, J., Ongeng, D., & De Steur, H. (2020). Farmers’ adoption of agricultural innovations: A systematic review on willingness to pay studies. Outlook on Agriculture, 49(3), 187-203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030727019879453
Panuccio, M. R., Jacobsen, S. E, Akhtar, S. S & Muscolo, A. (2014). Effect of saline water on seed germination and early seedling growth of the halophyte quinoa. AoBplants, 6, plu047. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plu047
Pedersen, S. M., Lind, K. M., Xhoxhi, O., Yazar, A., Jacobsen, S. E., & Orum, J. E. (2020). Introducing quinoa in Turkey-farmers perception in the region of Adana. Economia agro-alimentare: XXII, 1, 2020, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.3280/ecag1-2020oa10063
Quan, X., & Doluschitz, R. (2021). Factors influencing the adoption of agricultural machinery by Chinese maize farmers. Agriculture, 11(11), 1090. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11111090
Rafik, S., Chaoui, M., Assabban, Y., Jazi, S., Choukr-Allah, R., El Gharouss, M., & Hirich, A. (2021). Quinoa value chain, adoption, and market assessment in Morocco. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(34), 46692-46703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11375-x
Razzaghi, F., Ahmadi, S. H., Jacobsen, S. E., Jensen, C. R., & Andersen, M. N. (2012). Effects of salinity and soil-drying on radiation use efficiency, water productivity and yield of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science,198, 173-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00496.x
Razzaghi, F., Jacobsen, S. E., Jensen, C. R., & Andersen, M. N. (2015). Ionic and photosynthetic homeostasis in quinoa challenged by salinity and drought mechanisms of tolerance. Functional Plant Biology, 42, 136-148. https://doi.org/10.1071/FP14132
Razzaghi Asl, S., Rostami, Z., & Zibaei, N. (2015). Content analysis of international urban design articles over an 8-Year period (2005-2012): Research topics and methods. Hoviyat-e Shahr (Urban Identity), 9(24), 79-86. (In Persian)
Reddy, A. R., Chaitanya, K. V., & Vivekanandan, M. (2004). Drought induced responses of photosynthesis and antioxidant metabolism in higher plants. Journal of Plant Physiology, 161, 1189-1202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2004.01.013
Repo-Carrasco, R., Espinoza C., & Jacobsen, S. E. (2003). Nutritional value and use of the Andean crops quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa (and kaniwa) Chenopodium pallidicaule). Food Reviews International, 19, 179-189. https://doi.org/10.1081/FRI-120018884
Rezaei, R., Hosseini, S. M., & Sharifi, A. (2010). Analysis and explanation of the impact of drought on rural areas of Zanjan county (case study: Haj Aresh Village). Rural Research, 1(3), 109-130. (In Persian)
Rojas, W., Alandia G., Irigoyen J., & Blajos, J. (2011). Quinoa: An ancient crop to contribute to world food security. Chile: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Santiago de Chile.
Saberi, A. (2015). Introduction to the low-demand quinoa plant. Ministry of Agriculture-Jahad, Golstan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center. (In Persian)
Salehi, M., & Dehghani, F. (2018). Guide to planting, maintenance, and harvesting of quinoa under saline conditions. Ministry of Agriculture-Jahad, Agricultural Education Publishing. (In Persian)
Simnadis, T. G, Tapsell, L. C, & Beck, E. J (2015). Physiological effects associated with quinoa consumption and implications for research involving humans: A review. Plant foods for human nutrition, 70, 238-249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-015-0506-5
Stemler, S. (2000). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 7(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.7275/z6fm-2e34
Stikic, R., Glamoclija, D., Demin, M., Vucelic-Radovic, B., Jovanovic, Z., Milojkovic-Opsenica, D., Jacobsen, S. E. & Milovanovic, M. (2012). Agronomical and nutritional evaluation of quinoa seeds (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) as an ingredient in bread formulations. Journal of Cereal Science, 55, 132-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2011.10.010
Sun, Y., Liu, F., Bendevis, M., Shabala, S. & Jacobsen, S. E. (2014). Sensitivity of two quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) varieties to progressive drought stress. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 200, 12-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12042
Tabrizi, M. (2014). Qualitative content analysis from deductive and inductive approach perspectives. Social Sciences Quarterly, 21(64), 105-138. https://doi.org/10.22054/qjss.2014.344 (In Persian).
Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis. American Journal of Evaluation, 2(27), 237-246.
Vacher, J. J. (1998). Responses of two main Andean crops, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) and papa amarga (Solanum juzepczukii Buk.) to drought on the Bolivian Altiplano: Significance of local adaptation. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 68(1-2), 99-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(97)00140-0
Vilche, C., Gely, M., & Santalla, E., (2003). Physical properties of quinoa Seeds. Biosystems Engineering, 86(1), 59-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1537-5110(03)00114-4
Zhao, L., Liu, S., Gu, H., Yue, C., & Ahlstrom, D. (2023). What factors influence farmers’ adoption of transgenic technology under the background of risk amplification?. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol. 163, p. 03013). EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202308.1308.v1
Iran Agricultural Research
Volume 45, Issue 1
2026
Pages 57-73

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics